In Technology and Society: The Shaping of People and Things, Ron Westrum writes about the complex relationship between technology and social structures. He makes a compelling case for a more informed and proactive approach to managing technological change. Westrum effectively dismantles myths of isolated innovation, demonstrating how invention, design, sponsorship, and user interaction collectively determine technological trajectories. He advocates for balancing market forces, institutional power, and human-centered design to support technological progress that truly benefits society. Westrum’s analysis underscores the need for careful assessment, regulatory oversight, and ethical responsibility in shaping the future of technological development.

 

Chapter 1: Technology Within Social Frameworks

The opening chapter sets the stage by establishing that technology is never developed in isolation but exists within social structures that influence its design, adoption, and consequences. Westrum emphasizes that while innovation can drive progress, it also generates unintended effects, sometimes creating instability or requiring further adaptation. The increasing complexity of modern technologies demands specialized oversight, but societal responses to technological risks—such as climate change or cybersecurity threats—are often slow and inadequate. Decision-makers, often distanced from the long-term impacts of their choices, struggle to regulate and anticipate the broader consequences of innovation. Westrum cautions against blind optimism in technology’s ability to self-correct, advocating instead for a balanced approach that includes foresight, regulation, and adaptability to ensure societal benefits outweigh disruptions.

 

Chapter 2: Marxist Perspectives on Technology

This chapter examines Karl Marx’s views on technology, particularly its role in capitalism and worker alienation. Marx argued that technological advancements, such as mechanization, served capitalist interests by increasing efficiency while simultaneously controlling workers and diminishing their skills. By fragmenting labor processes, technology made workers more replaceable and dependent on their employers, thereby reducing their bargaining power. Marx’s critique remains relevant in modern discussions on automation and job displacement. However, Westrum highlights the historical challenges socialist systems faced in democratizing technology. Despite Marx’s vision, bureaucratic control in socialist economies often led to inefficiencies and worker disempowerment, raising questions about whether capitalism alone is to blame or if broader institutional forces are at play.

 

Chapter 3: William Ogburn and the Sociology of Technology

Following Marx, systematic sociological thought on technology waned until the early 20th century, when William F. Ogburn revived interest in the subject. Ogburn introduced the term cultural lag—the idea that technological advancements outpace societal adaptation, leading to disruptions in social norms, laws, and institutions. His four-step model of technological change (accumulation, invention, diffusion, and adjustment) suggested that social change follows a measurable, logical sequence. However, Westrum notes that by the 1960s, Ogburn’s influence declined as scholars became more critical of technology’s role in environmental harm and power structures. While Ogburn’s approach emphasized impersonal technological forces, later theorists would shift the focus to human decision-making and institutional influence.

 

Chapter 4: New Theoretical Approaches

As Ogburn’s school faded, new sociological frameworks emerged, emphasizing human agency and institutional power in technological development. Westrum outlines three key theories:

1. Actor-Network Theory (ANT) – Developed by Michel Callon, Bruno Latour, and John Law, ANT argues that technological development involves networks of people, ideas, and artifacts. The process of translation shapes how technologies are adopted, while problematization and enrollment influence which innovations gain traction.
2. Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) – Introduced by Wiebe Bijker and Trevor Pinch, SCOT asserts that technology evolves through social negotiations rather than following a predetermined path. Different social groups influence a technology’s final form and function, a process known as stabilization.
3. Systems Theory – Thomas P. Hughes’ work on large technological systems highlights how infrastructure (such as power grids and transportation networks) develops through historical decisions that create path dependence, making future change difficult.

Unlike Ogburn’s deterministic perspective, these theories say that technology is not neutral—it reflects the interests of those who develop and control it. Westrum underscores how government, corporate, and institutional forces shape which technologies thrive while others remain suppressed.

 

Chapter 5: The Role of Inventors

The fifth chapter shifts from macro-level analysis to the individual level, exploring the characteristics and challenges of inventors. Westrum describes inventors as individuals driven by curiosity, persistence, and a desire to solve problems. While some work independently, others operate within corporate or institutional settings. He outlines the typical stages of invention:

• Dissatisfaction with existing technology
• Formulating new solutions
• Overcoming skepticism and financial hurdles
• Navigating commercialization challenges

Many inventors lack business acumen, leading to difficulties in marketing their innovations. Large firms often resist external innovations due to the “not invented here” syndrome, and legal battles over patents can be a significant obstacle. Westrum highlights the role of entrepreneurs in bridging the gap between invention and market adoption, ensuring technological advancements reach wider society.

 

Chapter 6: The Context of Technological Innovation

Westrum challenges the "lone genius" narrative, asserting that technological advances emerge within broader historical and societal contexts. He highlights how inventions often arise as inevitable developments when certain conditions are met. Societal needs, economic pressures, and scientific advancements collectively drive innovation, and knowledge transfer occurs through education, professional networks, and industry collaborations. The chapter introduces key figures in the innovation process, including gatekeepers who link organizations to external knowledge and product champions who advocate for new technologies. Additionally, Westrum explores the role of corporate R&D, military projects, and skunk works in fostering innovation, emphasizing that multiple independent inventions arise when the social and technical environment is ripe.

 

Chapter 7: The Role of Designers in Shaping Technology

The distinction between inventors and designers is fluid, with designers focusing on usability, efficiency, and aesthetics. Practicality should guide design, yet aesthetic preferences and bureaucratic constraints often take precedence. Westrum critiques planned obsolescence and the failure to prioritize safety until external pressures demand it. He discusses gender biases in design, where male-oriented values shape product development, often neglecting women's needs. The chapter also highlights poor designer-user communication, stressing the need for more direct engagement through observational research and participatory design teams.

 

Chapter 8: The Innovation Process and Resistance to Change

Westrum expands on the complexities of innovation, emphasizing that invention and diffusion are interconnected. Many ideas require further refinement before becoming viable, as seen in the development of the safety razor. Resistance to innovation is common due to expert skepticism, fear of change, and entrenched interests. The chapter outlines common arguments against new technologies and highlights the persistence and generative rationality of innovators. Westrum also critiques technologies that gain traction despite limited benefits, questioning whether all advancements truly improve society.

 

Chapter 9: The Influence of Sponsors on Technology

Technological development is heavily influenced by sponsors, including corporations, governments, and institutions. These entities determine which technologies succeed through funding, regulation, and market control. The chapter explores monopolistic practices, regulatory interventions, and the suppression of competing innovations. Westrum introduces "orphan technologies," which fail due to a lack of sponsorship despite their potential benefits. Additionally, he examines how sponsors manipulate public perception, using media and propaganda to shape technological narratives.

 

Chapter 10: Market Forces and Technological Evolution

Economic power plays a decisive role in determining which technologies thrive. Westrum outlines the market evolution process, from initial innovation to corporate dominance, illustrating how financial strength often trumps product quality. The case of Softsoap exemplifies the struggles of small innovators against corporate giants. The chapter also discusses the role of conglomerates in shaping technology, often prioritizing financial interests over innovation. Westrum extends his analysis to government and nonprofit sponsorship, demonstrating how technological outcomes reflect broader power structures.

 

Chapter 11: The Role of Users and Skill in Technology Adoption

Technology's impact depends on user engagement, categorized as voluntary, assigned, or passive users. Skill acquisition is both technical and social, influenced by workplace norms and professional cultures. Westrum highlights how experienced users develop intuitive expertise, often surpassing formal training. He contrasts "technotonic" technologies, which empower users, with "technostressing" ones, which create frustration and alienation. The chapter also explores the dynamics of teamwork in high-skill environments, emphasizing how coordinated effort enhances technological effectiveness. Organizational expertise, Westrum argues, can significantly improve outcomes, but corporate restructuring and layoffs often undermine long-term knowledge retention.

 

Chapter 12: The Evolution of Technology’s Purpose

Westrum challenges the assumption that a technology’s intended use is always obvious from the start. Often, inventions precede clear applications, and their real-world uses emerge through adaptation. Examples such as the typewriter, ultracentrifuge, and machine gun illustrate how initial expectations can shift dramatically based on social, economic, and institutional influences.

Users frequently modify technology in unexpected ways, sometimes to improve performance or bypass flawed designs. Airline pilots, for example, develop undocumented tricks to enhance aircraft handling, while factory workers create practical shortcuts that ignore official guidelines. Tinkering—whether in the form of modifying machinery, software, or personal devices—has historically played a crucial role in technological advancement. However, Westrum warns that some modifications, such as disabling safety features, can introduce significant risks.

Familiarity with technology can lead to recklessness, where routine dangers become invisible. The chapter highlights cases where user modifications led to catastrophic consequences, such as the Seveso chemical disaster and unsafe practices in nuclear power plants.

 

Chapter 13: Case Studies of Technological Accidents

Westrum examines notable technological failures, revealing common themes of human error, design flaws, and systemic oversight failures:

• The Therac-25 Radiation Overdose (1986) was an accident in which a software flaw in a medical accelerator led to lethal radiation overdoses. 
• The space shuttle Challenger exploded in 1986. The failure of an O-ring seal exacerbated by ignored engineering warnings and political pressure led to the space shuttle’s explosion.
• In 1987, an Amtrak-Conrail passenger train collided due to operator error and inadequate braking systems. Regulatory failures in transportation safety were at play as well.
• Operator negligence and poor reactor design caused one of the worst nuclear disasters in history in Chernobyl (1986).

The chapter identifies key themes in technological accidents, such as cost-cutting at the expense of safety, institutional pressure to proceed despite risks, and failures to heed early warning signs.

 

Chapter 14: Technology and Social Distance

While technology can connect people, it can also create social distance by reducing face-to-face interactions and eroding personal relationships. Westrum discusses several ways in which technology alters human interactions:

• The weakening of personal bonds: Hospitals’ past practice of separating newborns from mothers illustrates how technological convenience can undermine social and emotional connections.
• Automated decision-making: Systems such as credit approval algorithms remove human judgment from important transactions, making decisions impersonal and less accountable.
• Convenience vs. isolation: Innovations like video recording and microwave ovens allow individuals to act independently, reducing shared family experiences.

Westrum warns that as people become more removed from the consequences of their actions, ethical responsibility can diminish. He explores historical examples where technological mediation distanced individuals from violence, such as bomber pilots during World War II and drone operators in modern warfare. Additionally, anonymous hacking and corporate surveillance illustrate how technology can enable large-scale, impersonal control over individuals.

 

Chapter 15: Regulation and Technological Control

Regulatory oversight is necessary to prevent harmful consequences of unchecked innovation. However, excessive control can stifle progress. Westrum discusses key challenges in regulation:

• Insufficient enforcement power: Agencies like the EPA and NRC lack resources to effectively monitor technological hazards.
• Political and corporate influence: Regulatory bodies often face pressure from powerful industries, leading to weakened oversight.
• Legal limitations: Laws struggle to keep pace with rapidly evolving technology.

The chapter emphasizes the importance of whistle-blowers and independent oversight in holding corporations and governments accountable. Westrum also highlights the role of citizen advocacy groups in shaping regulatory policies and pushing for stronger safety standards.

 

Chapter 16: Technology Assessment

Technology assessment is a systematic evaluation of both intended and unintended consequences of new technologies. Westrum explains that while primary effects are often predictable, secondary effects—such as environmental damage or social disruption—are frequently overlooked.

Key approaches to technology assessment include:

• Mathematical modeling: Predicting long-term outcomes through simulations.
• Scenario building: Imagining plausible futures to anticipate risks and benefits.
• Participatory methods: Engaging diverse stakeholders in the assessment process.

Challenges in technology assessment include expert biases, political and economic pressures, and the difficulty of predicting long-term societal impacts. Westrum argues that public involvement and continuous evaluation are necessary for responsible technological development.

 

Chapter 17: Foresight and Social Intelligence

Westrum explores the importance of feedback mechanisms in technological learning. Many technological risks involve delayed feedback loops, making it difficult to recognize and address problems before they become crises. He outlines three key types of delays:

1. Impact Lag – The time between an action and its full effects (e.g., ozone depletion from CFCs took decades to become evident).
2. Recognition Delay – The time required to identify and understand technological risks (e.g., early skepticism about acid rain).
3. Response Delay – The lag between recognizing a problem and taking corrective action (e.g., slow policy responses to banning harmful chemicals).

Westrum examines how institutions and individuals monitor technological risks. He highlights the role of think tanks, research institutes, and activists in identifying and mitigating emerging threats. However, he warns of the "Dinosaur Problem"—where entrenched technologies, like fossil fuels and automobiles, become too embedded in society to be easily replaced.

 

Westrum advocates for a smarter approach to technology. A better system of technological oversight requires stronger regulatory agencies with independent oversight; more investment in education and public awareness of technological risks; slower, more deliberate technology adoption to allow for risk assessment. Societies must move from reactive ("fixing problems after they occur") to proactive ("anticipating and preventing issues before they emerge").

 

Three types of societies in managing technological risks are:

(1) Pathological Systems – Deny problems and punish whistleblowers (e.g., authoritarian regimes with poor environmental policies);

(2) Calculative Systems – Address problems only when they become urgent, but react too slowly to prevent major issues (e.g., the U.S. with climate change policies);

(3) Generative Systems – Anticipate risks, plan long-term, and integrate foresight into decision-making (e.g., Japan’s emphasis on national planning).

Source:

Westrum, R. (1991), Technologies & Society - The Shaping of People and Things, Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Inc.