While the new view of human error looks at human-machine interactions, system design, and distributed cognition, an older, sociological perspective is that of Niklas Luhmann (1964). Both perspectives challenge us to see errors not as failures but as signals for growth, adaptation, and systemic improvement.

 

The hidden value of errors in organizations

“Human Error”. Within organizations, the term often conjures feelings of failure, frustration, or fear. But what if errors and deviations aren’t merely disruptions to avoid? What if they reveal the complex interaction between formal structures and human behavior?

Niklas Luhmann, in his work “Funktionen und Folgen formaler Organisation” (published in 1964, as the Beatles sang “Rock and Roll Music”), argued that errors are not only inevitable but functional. Errors play a role in systemic adaptability, expose hidden tensions, and even spur innovation. Here are some insights from his analysis that challenge conventional thinking about “human error” in organizations.

 

The dual role of norms - Stabilization and flexibility

Formal norms and expectations are both the backbone and boundary of social systems. They dictate correct behavior while providing a framework for systemic operations. However, these norms are inherently limited. Only a fraction of an organization’s behavioral expectations can be formalized.

The gap between formal norms and actual behavior creates space for errors—essential for flexibility. Errors often arise not from malice or incompetence but from the impossibility of aligning every action perfectly with formalized expectations. These "useful illegalities"—actions that deviate from rules but solve immediate problems—highlight the elasticity of organizational systems and their adaptability to unforeseen challenges.

 

Informal structures - The shadow organization

Beneath the polished image of formal structures lies an informal order with its own norms, communication channels, and power dynamics. This informal layer transforms rigid tasks into communal activities, supports creativity, and addresses nuances formal rules often overlook.

Errors frequently emerge as byproducts of friction between formal and informal systems. For instance, an employee might bypass a rigid process to meet a critical deadline, creating a minor formal error while achieving a broader organizational goal. Such deviations underscore the critical role of informal networks in maintaining functionality within complex systems.

 

The paradox of organizational membership and expectations

Membership in organizations involves more than formal commitments. Membership is a performance of alignment with shared expectations. But these expectations are often contradictory. Members must navigate conflicting roles, balancing formal duties with informal relationships and personal goals. Errors frequently arise when these conflicting expectations collide. For example, a manager strictly adhering to protocols might alienate their team, undermining trust and collaboration. Such errors reflect the need for leaders to balance formal authority with the informal dynamics that sustain their teams.

 

Adaptation through elasticity

Organizations thrive when they balance stability with adaptability. Elastic expectations—that account for change and exceptions—are more durable and effective than rigid ones. Errors reveal when rigid norms no longer align with reality, prompting necessary adjustments. Abstract and interchangeable roles are important for organizational elasticity. By decoupling roles from individuals, systems can adapt to change without destabilizing their core structures. Errors in role execution often signal opportunities for refinement and evolution.

 

The symbolism of errors

Errors carry symbolic weight. They test the resilience of norms and the trust members place in the organization’s structure. Leaders’ responses to errors—punitive or adaptive—shape organizational culture and influence members’ willingness to innovate and take risks. Errors framed as mistakes isolate incidents and preserve confidence in the system. But excessive reliance on punitive measures risks stifling innovation and fostering a culture of fear. Errors are opportunities for reflection and learning, not just correction.

 

Collegiality and informal sanctions

Collegiality and informal sanctions play a critical role in bridging the gap between formal expectations and actual behavior. These mechanisms absorb tensions, resolve conflicts discreetly, and maintain group cohesion. For example, subtle feedback from a peer can prevent an error from escalating into a formal issue, preserving relationships and minimizing disruption. Such interactions stress the value of trust, discretion, and solidarity within organizations.

 

Balancing formal and informal systems

Errors highlight the interaction between formal and informal structures. While formalization brings order and consistency, it cannot fully address the complexity of human behavior or environmental variability. Informal systems, though less predictable, provide the adaptability and nuance needed for long-term resilience. Leaders and organizations must embrace this duality, leveraging formal structures for stability while fostering informal networks for creativity and flexibility. Errors should be viewed not as failures to eliminate but as signals to interpret and opportunities to evolve.

 

Conclusion - A new perspective on “human error”

Luhmann’s insights challenge us to rethink our relationship with errors. Instead of striving for unattainable perfection (e.g., “zero harm”), organizations should recognize errors as integral to their functioning. By examining errors, we gain a deeper understanding of the tensions, adaptations, and innovations that sustain complex systems. Since 1964, the organizational world has become more complex. The ability to balance formal norms with informal flexibility is still crucial. Errors, when managed thoughtfully, serve as the lifeblood of this balance, ensuring organizations remain dynamic, resilient, and human.

 

Source:

Luhmann, N. (1964), Funktionen und Folgen Formaler Organisation, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot.