Testing Cultural Theory Through Form Calculus

In Kulturkalkül, sociologist Dirk Baecker examines cultural theory through the lens of George Spencer-Brown's form calculus, and vice versa. He defines culture as a form - specifically, as a distinction observed by an individual, who also observes themselves during the process. This self-observation creates a sense of distance, leading to estrangement. As a result, culture becomes a term of reflection that grows in complexity but loses its intuitive clarity. Baecker aims to sharpen the meaning of culture enough to describe the complex relationship between humans and their circumstances. Culture represents not only the cultivation of human relationships but also their critique and comparison within the context of possible rejection. This negation has political significance, as it shapes collective identities that can be passed down or reimagined.

The Evolution of Cultural Theory

Baecker situates the roots of cultural theory in the work of Giambattista Vico, who distinguished between the human-made historical world and divine nature. Vico suggested that while humans shape their world, they remain subject to certain limits, leaving nature's mysteries to divine control. Vico’s contribution lies in his understanding of human society as shaped by free but constrained will, governed by universal institutions like religion, marriage, and burial practices. His work laid one of the earliest theoretical foundations for viewing culture as a manifestation of human will, influenced by forces beyond human control. Modern cultural theory builds on Vico’s ideas, when it explores the tension between human agency and constraints; culture is formed through voluntary actions influenced by broader historical, social, and natural forces.

Observation and Recursion in Cultural Theory

Spencer-Brown’s form calculus introduces first-order and second-order observers. First-order observers make distinctions, while second-order observers observe these distinctions and make their own, which often remain implicit or unwritten. These unwritten distinctions - 'unwritten crosses' -, reveal the space where the first distinction was made and only become visible through another distinction. This reflects a blind spot (Heinz von Foerster): we cannot observe what allows us to observe, limiting our reflection. As we continually move this blind spot forward, we encounter ourselves within the system, which creates recursive loops that challenge any stable hierarchy between different levels of observation. The process becomes heterarchical; all levels of observation are interconnected. This recursive nature of observation and meaning-making is central to Baecker's analysis of culture, where signs and distinctions continuously influence our understanding of the world.

Semiotics and the Recursive Nature of Culture

Baecker explores how semiotics operates on multiple levels - icons, indices, and interpretants create a dynamic process of interpretation. Spencer-Brown’s distinction, symbolized graphically as a cross or stroke, encapsulates this recursive process of observation and meaning-making. The complexity of culture, observation, and meaning lies in the circularity and interdependence of distinctions. Culture is a recursive system in which both manifest actions and latent conditions are continuously reinterpreted, ensuring the system remains dynamic and adaptive.

The Role of Values in Cultural Anthropology

Kroeber and Kluckhohn wrote that the core of culture lies in its patterned selectivity, structured into complex multi-valued systems. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck extended this by arguing that the variations in values, rather than the values themselves, are critical in cultural anthropology. Cultural identity emerges from the tension between variability and consistency in values. Freud recognized that this tension between individual desires and societal expectations creates a mechanism of restraint, where societies balance personal desires with social order. Cultural critiques, rituals like carnival, and transgressions reflect this balance. When critique and transgression blur, cultural forms become more complex and less stable. This forces societies to continuously negotiate their identity and coherence in response to both internal and external pressures.

Cultural Integration and Flexible Systems

In complex cultural systems, successful integration requires genuine collaboration between local and global agents. Cultural integration relies on how specific solutions meet persistent demands within a society, rather than a simple sum of varied approaches. Loose coupling - a flexible connection between agents - enables local cultures to maintain their uniqueness while engaging with global dynamics. This adaptability is essential for cultural integration, allowing cultures to evolve and integrate while preserving room for variation.

Cultural Development and Redundancy

Georg Simmel’s framework of culture describes a transition from a closed unity of norms to an unfolded multiplicity that requires continuous decisions, which culminates in an unfolded unity where loosely connected elements maintain coherence. Niklas Luhmann refined this model with three key processes: duplication, comparison, and control. Duplication transforms things into symbols, enabling comparison and control within society. This comparison generates a feedback loop of reflection, which ensures that cultural practices are both redundant and integrated. Culture navigates between variety and redundancy, thereby maintaining complexity through continuous reflection on contingent values. These values are flexible, adapting to different contexts while balancing societal expectations and traditions.

Culture as a System of Negotiation

Culture functions as a negotiation between values, ensuring multiple possibilities remain open. Heinz von Foerster’s principle that culture should expand possibilities rather than restrict them stresses the dynamic and evolving nature of culture. It operates through negation and reflection, dealing with complexity by maintaining multiple values within a constantly changing social fabric.

Cultural Norms and Adaptation

Cultural codes are complex, distinguishing between correct and incorrect behavior depending on the context. Cultural norms are not rigid; they adapt, rewarding correct actions and punishing incorrect ones based on societal values. This fluidity reflects Luhmann's view that culture is shaped by chance and variation over time, continually refining its norms through comparison and control. Culture integrates societal values while managing disintegration and variety, navigating tensions between correctness and adaptability within a stable societal framework.

Baecker, D. (2014), Kalturkalkül, Berlin: Merve Verlag.