The theoretical and philosophical leanings of European sociology contrast with the empirically driven and social-psychology-oriented approaches of American sociology. While American sociology has strong empirical foundations, European traditions contribute a deeper theoretical and interpretive richness. American sociology's empirical methods evolved significantly, influenced by European ideas but later incorporating behaviorist and pragmatist philosophies. Key figures such as Robert Park, William Thomas, and Robert Merton advanced the systematic integration of theory and empirical research.

Practical social research, including public opinion polling, has faced criticism for its methodological shortcomings and misinterpretations, particularly in high-profile cases like the 1948 U.S. presidential election polls. Misunderstandings about the nature and purpose of opinion research have led to skepticism, especially in European contexts. Methodological rigor is necessary in conducting interviews, sampling, and data analysis to ensure meaningful and reliable results. Controlled approaches help bridge the gap between theoretical hypotheses and empirical findings.

Social research must maintain a balance between theoretical exploration and practical application. The ultimate goal is to address real-world issues and improve societal understanding and policy-making. Closer collaboration between American and European sociology is needed to combine the strengths of empirical innovation with philosophical depth, fostering mutual enrichment. The overall aim is to advocate for methodological precision in social research while addressing the practical needs of society, ensuring sociology remains both academically rigorous and socially relevant.

Interviews are exchanges between an interviewer and a respondent, aimed at eliciting information, opinions, or beliefs. Non-verbal behaviors and written questionnaires are excluded. Verbal responses should be directed at the interviewer, specifically answering their questions. Interviews in research emerged from two main traditions: (1) the Clinical Tradition, originating in psychological diagnosis and therapy; and (2) the Test Tradition, developed for standardized measurements and classifications, particularly during World Wars.

Interviews are used in exploratory phases to formulate hypotheses, as primary data collection tools, or to clarify findings from other methods. Proper planning, including hypotheses and objectives, is critical for effective use.
In Standardized Interviews, questions are predetermined, asked in the same way and order to all respondents. This approach enhances comparability but may feel rigid or unnatural. In Non-Standardized Interviews, questions are flexible, adapting to each respondent's context. While more natural, this method risks inconsistencies and is difficult to standardize for analysis. Semi-Standardized Interviews combine both approaches, using core questions supplemented by optional follow-ups.
Open Questions allow unrestricted responses, revealing spontaneous thoughts and unexpected insights but complicating analysis. Closed Questions offer predefined answers, ensuring comparability and simplifying data coding but risking limited respondent expression. Indirect questioning, such as projective questions, aims to uncover hidden attitudes by discussing hypothetical situations or others' views. These methods are useful for sensitive topics but pose challenges in interpretation and reliability.

Interviewers influence responses through their perceived authority, expertise, and neutrality. They should balance appearing knowledgeable without intimidating the respondent. Power dynamics, social hierarchies, and the interviewer's identity (e.g., age, gender, social status) significantly impact the respondent's openness and honesty. Striking the right balance between structured and adaptive interviewing remains a central challenge.

Interviews should be thoughtfully designed, with pretesting to ensure clarity and relevance of questions. The interviewer must maintain professional detachment while fostering a comfortable and trusting environment for respondents. For deeper investigations, interviewers should be aware of emotional dynamics and prepared to handle sensitive disclosures appropriately.

Interviewers must maintain professionalism, neither being too indifferent nor overly engaging. They should avoid showing personal bias, approval, or disapproval during interviews to maintain neutrality. A friendly yet neutral demeanor fosters better rapport and encourages respondents to share accurate information. Securing respondents' collaboration is critical, often requiring strategic planning such as community involvement or written introductions. Scheduling interviews in advance can improve response rates but may also introduce biases if respondents prepare excessively.
Respondents may provide inconsistent or socially desirable answers, especially when sensitive topics are discussed. The presence of others during the interview can influence responses and compromise data comparability. Structured interviews help standardize data collection, but they should still allow room for probing or clarifying responses. Recording interviews mechanically can improve accuracy but raises ethical and technical concerns. Training interviewers to recognize and mitigate respondent discomfort or misunderstandings is essential.

Various data-recording methods include field notes, immediate transcription, coded answers, or audio recordings. Written notes from memory are prone to significant biases and omissions, making real-time recording more reliable. Systematic differences in how interviewers ask questions or interpret responses can skew results. Interviewer expectations may unconsciously influence respondent answers, creating bias. Validity depends on the relationship between interview responses and actual behaviors or attitudes. Verification methods include comparing interview data with external records or observing correlations between expected and actual responses.

Interviews offer advantages over self-administered questionnaires, such as addressing misunderstandings and gathering nuanced data. However, interviews are costlier and prone to errors like interviewer influence, making them less suitable for certain large-scale or simple studies. Interviews are best suited for exploratory and descriptive research phases but require careful design to ensure data reliability. Alternative methods, such as direct observation or anonymous surveys, may complement or replace interviews depending on the research context.

Source:

König, R. (ed.) (1976), Das Interview – Formen, Technik, Auswertung, Köln: Kiepenheuer & Witsch.